This FAQ was created for the Usenet newsgroup talk.politics.tibet and
addresses various issues that are discussed in that newsgroup on a recurring
basis. Also included are the addresses of various organizations that deal
with Tibet and a guide to the additional sources of information that are
available, both on the Internet and in print.
The maintainers of this FAQ are:
Peter Kauffner (Peter.Kauffner@bearsden.org)
Nima Dorjee (tibet@acs.ucalgary.ca)
Suggestions for improvement should be sent to (Peter.Kauffner@bearsden.org).
Some addresses and web locations have been updated for this edition. The
chronology entries for 1996 and 1997 have also been updated.
----TABLE OF CONTENTS----
Introduction
A1) What are the meanings of specialized words used on TPT (glossary)?
Historical Issues
B1) What are the major events of Tibetan history (timeline)?
B2) What were the roles of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in Tibetan history?
B3) Did slavery exist in old Tibet?
B4) Was human sacrifice practiced in old Tibet?
B5) What is the historical basis of the Chinese claim to Tibet?
B6) What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644-1912)?
B7) What was Tibet's status immediately prior to China's 1950-51 invasion?
Human Rights
C1) Are Tibetan women being forced to have abortions?
C2) How are Tibetan political prisoners treated?
C3) How many Tibetans have died as a result of the Chinese occupation?
Statistical Issues
D1) What is the total population of Tibet?
D2) How many ethnic Chinese live in Tibet (population transfer)?
D3) What are Tibet's economic statistics?
Further Information
E1) What World-Wide Web sites have further information about Tibet?
E2) Where do I find information concerning travel to Tibet?
E3) What Tibet-oriented mailing lists can I subscribe to?
E4) What are the addresses of some organizations that deal with Tibet?
E5) What books about Tibet would you recommend?
F0) Sources
Section A: INTRODUCTION
A1) What are the meanings of specialized words used on TPT (glossary)?
The following is a glossary of words related to Tibet. When the
pronunciation of a word differs from what one might expect from the
standard spelling, a phonetic spelling is given between slash marks (//).
Words in all CAPITAL letters have glossary entries of their own. The tonal
indicators for Tibetan are as follows: 1 -- high; 2 -- low; 3 -- falling;
and 4 -- middle. For Chinese (Mandarin), the tonal indicators are: 1 --
level; 2 -- high rising; 3 -- low rising; and 4 -- falling.
AMBAN -- A representative of the QING emperor who resided in the territory of
a tributary state or dependency. The Qing mission in Lhasa was usually
headed by two Ambans of equal status. The mission was established in
1728 and lasted until 1912.
AMDO /ahm'doh'/ -- The Tibetan name for a region located northeast of Lhasa.
It includes the bulk of QINGHAI province, as well as the Kanlho Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu province. Along with KHAM and U-TSANG,
it is one of Tibet's three historic regions. Each of these regions
speaks its own distinctive dialect of Tibetan.
BOD [Tibetan /puh3/] -- The Tibetan word for TIBET. The word Bod may be
derived from BON.
BODPA [Tibetan /puh4ba4/] -- The Tibetan word for "Tibetan," both as a noun
and as an adjective.
BON [Tibetan /puhm2/] -- Tibet's pre-Buddhist, animist religion.
Cf. NYINGMAPA
CCP -- Chinese Communist Party. The ruling party of China since 1949. (The
Chinese government prefers "CPC" -- Communist Party of China.)
COMMISSION OF PEOPLE'S DEPUTIES -- TGIE's legislative branch. The Tibetan
exile community has held CPD elections every three years since 1960.
DALAI LAMA [Tibetan /ta1le4 la1ma4/] -- Tibet's most renown line of incarnate
LAMAs. The Dalai Lamas reigned as kings of Tibet from 1642 until 1959.
The current Dalai Lama has lived in exile since 1959. See question B2.
DL -- DALAI LAMA
GELUGPA /ge'luk'pa'/ -- The dominate Buddhist sect in Tibet and Mongolia. The
literal translation of Gelugpa is "model of virtue." The sect was
founded by the Tibetan monk Tsongkhapa in the 15th century and is also
known as the Yellow Hat sect. Cf. RED HAT.
HAN /han4/ -- The Chinese word for an ethnic Chinese. More precisely, a Han
is someone whose primary or ancestral language is Chinese (_Han4yu3_)
and who does not belong to any of China's various other officially
recognized ethnic groups.
KAGYUPA -- Tibet's third largest monastic order. The name means "transmitted
word." The Kagyupa order consists of several sub-orders, including Karma
Kagyupa, widely practiced in both Tibet and Sikkim, and Dukpa Kagyupa,
the dominate faith of Bhutan. Cf. KARMAPA.
KARMAPA -- A line of incarnate LAMAs whose traditional residence is at
Tsurphu Monastery near Lhasa. The Karmapa heads the Karma KAGYUPA order
and is also known as the Black Hat Lama. The 16th Karmapa died in
Chicago in 1981. A successor was enthroned at Tsurphu in 1993, although
some Karma Kagyupa members still support a rival candidate.
KASHAG [Tibetan /ka1shaa3/] -- A group of four men appointed by the Dalai
Lama to supervise day to day government administration. The group is
often referred to as Tibet's cabinet. In 1992, TGIE's constitution was
amended to make the Kashag responsible to the COMMISSION OF PEOPLE'S
DEPUTIES.
KHAM -- A region of eastern Tibet. Western Kham is now in TAR (q.v.) while
eastern Kham is in China's Sichuan (Szechwan) province.
KMT -- Kuomintang [Chinese /gwo2min2dang3/] The ruling party of China from
1928 to 1949. The ruling party of Taiwan since 1949. It is also known
as the Nationalist Party.
LAMA [Tibetan /la1ma4/] -- The literal translation of this Tibetan word is
"superior one." The word has several meanings, but is most commonly
used to refer to incarnate lamas or TULKU. Other Buddhist spiritual
teachers may be referred to as root lamas. Cf. YOGIN.
LHASA [Tibetan /lhe1sa4/] -- The capital and largest city in Tibet with a
population of 170,000. Lhasa is a shortened form of _lha sacha_, which
means "god's place."
LOSAR -- Tibetan new year. The next Losar will be on February 27, 1998.
By the Tibetan calendar, it is currently 2124, the year of the fire ox.
Cf. MONLAM CHENMO.
MCMAHON LINE -- The boundary for the eastern section of the frontier between
Tibet and India. It runs from the eastern end of Bhutan to the great
bend in the Brahmaputra River. British and Tibetan negotiators agreed
to this boundary in a conference held in Simla, India in 1914. The line
is named for Sir Henry McMahon, the head of the British negotiating
team. Although China claims territory south the McMahon Line, it has
generally respected the line in practice.
MANCHU -- a people who lived in what is now northeastern China for many
centuries. Until 1636, they were known as the Jurchen. From 1644 to
1912, China was ruled by emperors of Manchu ancestry. Cf. QING.
MONLAM CHENMO -- The "great prayer festival," which begins three days after
LOSAR and continues for ten days. China currently prohibits the public
celebration of Monlam and other Buddhist holidays in Tibet.
NYINGMAPA -- "The old order," Tibet's second largest monastic order.
Nyingmapa priests are not usually required to be celibate. The sect's
rituals include many elements that were derived from BON.
PANCHEN LAMA [Tibetan /pen1jeen4 la1ma4/] -- A title used by the head LAMA of
Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse. His spiritual authority is second
only to that of the DALAI LAMA within the GELUGPA sect. See question B2.
PAP -- People's Armed Police. A paramilitary force created in 1983 to patrol
border areas and to guard government buildings. It was used extensively
to suppress demonstrations in Lhasa between 1987 and 1991. Cf. PSB.
PLA -- People's Liberation Army. The official name of the Chinese armed
forces since 1949. The PLA is a combined service and includes ground,
air, and naval units.
PRC -- People's Republic of China. China's official long form name since
1949.
PSB -- Public Security Bureau. China's principle agency for enforcing
criminal law, i.e. the regular police. Cf. PAP.
QING /ching1/ -- A dynasty of MANCHU origin which was founded in 1636 and
ruled China from 1644 to 1912.
QINGHAI /ching1hi3/ -- A Chinese province created in 1928 to administer the
bulk of Tibet's AMDO region. In 1992, the population of Qinghai was
estimated to be 4.61 million, [Fiske94] of whom 58 percent were ethnic
Chinese, 20 percent were ethnic Tibetan, and 14 percent were Hui
(Chinese Muslim). The ethnic Chinese population is concentrated in the
vicinity of Xining, the capital. All six of the province's rural
prefectures are classified as "Tibetan autonomous." Qinghai can also be
referred to as Kokonor, the region's Mongolian name.
RANG-BTSAN /rang2dsen4/ -- The Tibetan word for "independence" or "self-
government."
RED HAT -- Any of various Tibetan monastic orders established prior to the
15th century when the GELUGPA order was founded. The three largest Red
Hat sects, in order of membership, are: NYINGMAPA, KAGYUPA, and Sakyapa.
The Tibetan term corresponding to Red Hat (_Zhvamar_) refers only to
the followers of the Sharmapa, a TULKU of the Karma Kagyupa sub-order.
ROC -- Republic of China, China's official long form name from 1911 to 1949.
Although the ROC government has ruled only Taiwan since 1949, it still
claims to be the legitimate government of all China, including Tibet.
SELF-DETERMINATION -- The determining by a people of the form their
government shall have, without reference to the wishes any other people.
The Charter of the United Nations calls for, "respect for the principle
of equal rights and self-determination of peoples." A 1961 U.N. General
Assembly resolution describes Tibetans as a people entitled to the
right of self-determination.
SERF -- A peasant bound to perform feudal obligations for a lord. In 1959,
about 60 percent of Tibet's population were legally classified as serfs.
(In Tibetan, serfs are known as _miser_ or "yellow people").[Grunfeld1]
TAR -- Tibet Autonomous Region. China created TAR in 1965 to administer the
Tibetan regions of U-TSANG and western KHAM. Despite its name, the TAR
government does not in fact enjoy any significant degree of autonomy.
The region's top policymaker is CCP Secretary Chen Kuiyuan, an ethnic
Chinese appointed by Beijing.
TASHI DELEK -- A common Tibetan greeting.
TGIE -- Tibetan government-in-exile. See question B2.
TI -- Tibetan independence. TI can also stand for "Taiwan independence."
TIBET -- The Tibetan government-in-exile refers to the entire Tibet-Qinghai
Plateau as "Tibet." But the word can also be used to refer to TAR (q.v.)
only. "Tibet" is a word used in various European languages and was
derived from the Arabic _Tubbat_, which was in turn derived from the
Chinese TUFAN. [Partridge66]
TPT -- talk.politics.tibet. The Usenet newsgroup for which this document is
the FAQ.
TSAMPA -- roasted barley flour, a staple of the Tibetan diet. Various Tibetan
celebrations, such as LOSAR, are marked by tossing tsampa into the
air.
TSHONGDU -- Tibet's national assembly, established in the 1860s. Included the
heads of major government departments as well as representatives from
the larger monasteries. Decisions were made by consensus.
Cf. COMMISSION OF PEOPLE'S DEPUTIES
TUFAN /tu3fan1/ -- A Chinese name for Tibet used during the Tang dynasty
(618-907). The second syllable of Tufan was traditionally pronounced
/bo/ and is probably a corruption of BOD. [Giles1]
TULKU [Tibetan /drue1ue1ku4/] -- A person who is considered to be the
reincarnation of a great spiritual teacher. The preferred translation
of tulku is "incarnate LAMA." An older, less accurate, translation is
"living Buddha." The Dalai and Panchen Lamas are Tibet's best-known
tulku.
U-TSANG /oh'tsong'/ -- The Tibetan name for central Tibet, now included in
TAR (q.v.).
XIZANG /she1tsong4/ -- The modern Chinese name for Tibet. The word is derived
from U-TSANG and has been in use since the 18th century. [Kolmas67]
The literal translation of Xizang is "western storehouse" or "western
storeroom," not "western treasure house" as is sometimes
claimed. [Giles2]
YOGIN -- A spiritual teacher who is not bound by monastic vows.
Section B: HISTORICAL ISSUES
B1) What are the major events of Tibetan history (timeline)?
Year Description of Event
416 BC Nyatri Tsenpo founds a dynasty in Yarlung valley, according to legend
602 AD Tibet is unified under King Namri Songtsen of the Yarlung dynasty
641 King Songtsen Gampo marries Princess Wencheng of China, his 2nd wife
670 Tibet conquers Amdo, Tarim Basin; prolonged warfare with China begins
747 King Trisong Detsen invites Padmasambhava, yogin of Swat, to Tibet
763 Tibet captures Changan, capital of Tang China; tribute paid to Tibet
779 Samye, Tibet's 1st monastery, built by Trisong Detsen & Padmasambhava
792 Exponents of Indian Buddhism prevail in debate with Chinese at Samye
821 Tibet signs its last peace treaty with Tang China: "Tibetans shall
be happy in Tibet and Chinese shall be happy in China." [Walt1]
842 King Langdarma murdered by a monk; Tibet splits into several states
1040 Birth of Milarepa, 2nd hierarch of Kagyupa order and a renown poet
1073 Founding of Sakya, the first monastery of the Sakyapa monastic order
1206 An assembly names Genghis Khan first ruler of a unified Mongol nation
1227 Mongols destroy Xi Xia, a Tibetan-speaking kingdom of northwest China
1247 Sakya Pandita submits to Godan Khan; beginning of the first priest/
patron relationship between a Tibetan lama and a Mongol khan
1261 Tibet is reunited with Sakya Pandita, Grand Lama of Sakya, as king
1279 Final defeat of Song by Mongols; Mongol conquest of China complete
1350 Changchub Gyaltsen defeats Sakya and founds the secular Sitya dynasty
1368 China regains its independence from the Mongols under Ming dynasty
1409 Ganden, 1st Gelugpa monastery, built by monastic reformer Tsongkhapa
1435-81 In prolonged warfare, Karmapa supporters gain control of Sitya court
1578 Gelugpa leader gets the title of Dalai ("Ocean") from Altan Khan
1635 Sitya dynasty is overthrown by the ruler of Tibet's Tsang province
1640 Gushri Khan, leader of Khoshut Mongols, invades and conquers Tibet
1642 Gushri Khan enthrones the 5th Dalai Lama as temporal ruler of Tibet
1644 Manchu overthrow Ming, conquer China, and establish the Qing dynasty
1653 "Great Fifth" Dalai Lama meets Qing Emperor Shunzhi near Beijing
1682 Fifth Dalai Lama dies; regent conceals death for the next 14 years
1716-21 Italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri studies and teaches in Lhasa
1717 Dzungar Mongols invade Tibet and sack Lhasa; 5th DL's tomb looted
1720 Dzungars driven out; Qing forces install Kesang Gyatso as the 7th DL
1721 The position of Amban is created by a 13-point Qing decree on Tibet
1724 A Chinese territorial government is created for Qinghai (Amdo)
1750 Ambans murder regent; rioters kill Ambans; Qing troops sent to Tibet
1792 Qing troops enter Tibet to drive out Gorkha (Nepalese) invaders
29-point Qing decree prescribes "golden urn" lottery for picking DL
and PL, bans visits by non-Chinese, and increases Ambans' powers
1854-56 Nepal defeats Tibet; peace treaty requires that Tibet pay tribute
1876 China agrees to provide passports for a British mission to Tibet
1885 Tibet turns back British mission, rejects Chinese-granted passports
1893 China and Britain agree to regulations on trade between India & Tibet
1894 Tibetans build a wall north of Dromo to prevent trade with India
The 13th Dalai Lama takes control of the Tibetan government at age 18
1904 British troops under Colonel Younghusband enter Tibet & occupy Lhasa
A treaty signed which required Tibet to pay an indemnity to Britain
1906 The 1904 Anglo-Tibetan treaty is "confirmed" in Anglo-Chinese treaty
1907 "Suzerainty of China over Thibet" recognized in Anglo-Russian treaty
1910-12 Qing troops occupy Tibet, shoot at unarmed crowds on entering Lhasa
1912 Last Qing emperor abdicates; Republic of China claims Mongolia,Tibet
1913 13th Dalai Lama proclaims Tibet a "religious and independent nation"
Mongolia and Tibet recognize each other in a treaty signed in Urga
1914 Britain and Tibet agree to McMahon Line in a treaty signed in Simla
1917-18 Tibet defeats Chinese forces in Kham, recovers Chamdo (lost in 1910)
1921 Britain recognizes Tibet's "autonomy under Chinese suzerainty"
1924 At a KMT congress, Sun Yat-sen calls for "self-determination of all
national minorities in China" within a "united Chinese republic"
1924-25 Pressure from monks causes DL to dismiss his British-trained officers
1928 Chiang Kai-shek defeats the northern warlords and reunites China
1930-33 China captures Derge in Kham in first Sino-Tibetan clash since 1918
1933 Truce ends China/Tibet fighting; the 13th Dalai Lama dies at age 58
1934 Reting Rimpoche named regent; China permitted to open Lhasa mission
1940 The five-year-old Tenzin Gyatso is enthroned as the 14th Dalai Lama
1941 Unable to keep celibacy vow, Reting is replaced as regent by Taktra
1942 U.S. army officer goes to Lhasa to present a letter for DL from FDR
1944 U.S. military aircraft crash lands near Samye; crew escorted to India
1945 Newly opened English-language school is closed after monks protest
1947 ex-Regent Reting attempts to kill Regent Taktra with a package bomb
Reting dies while under house arrest; he was apparently poisoned
British mission in Lhasa is transferred to a newly independent India
1947-49 Tibetan Trade Mission travels to India, China, U.S., and Britain;
mission meets with British Prime Minister Clement R. Attlee
1949 People's Republic of China is proclaimed by Chinese Communist Party
PRC recognizes Mongolia, announces its intention to "liberate" Tibet
1950 Red China invades Tibet; Tibetan army destroyed in battle at Chamdo
1951 17-point agreement between China and Tibet; Chinese occupy Lhasa
1955 Tibetans in Kham and Amdo (Qinghai) begin revolt against Chinese rule
1956 Dalai Lama visits India for 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's birth
The United States begins to arm the Tibetan resistance via CIA
1959 DL flees to India; 87,000 Tibetans die in anti-Chinese revolt [Walt2]
1960 International Commission of Jurists: "acts of genocide [have] been
committed...to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group." [ICJ1]
1960-62 Tibet experiences its first famine as grain is requisitioned by PLA
1962 China-India War: China advances beyond McMahon Line, then withdraws
1962-75 TAR's peasants are herded into communes by collectivization campaign
1963 DL approves a democratic constitution for the Tibetan exile community
1964 The Panchen Lama is arrested after calling for Tibetan independence
1965 China sets up Tibet Autonomous Region in U-Tsang and western Kham
1966 The United States America recognizes China's sovereignty over Tibet
1966-69 Cultural Revolution: Red Guards vandalize temples, attack "four olds"
1969-71 Tibet is put under PLA military rule in order to suppress Red Guards
1971 The United States cuts off military aid to the Tibetan resistance
1974 Nepal forces the Tibetan resistance to abandon its base in Mustang
Sikkim votes overwhelmingly to join India; Ladakh opened to tourists
1976 The first permanent ethnic Chinese settlers arrive in TAR [Donnet94]
1977 Resistance burns 100 PLA vehicles in last major military operation
1978 Visitors find 8 temples left in TAR, down from 2,700 in 1959 [Far95]
1979 Tibet is opened to non-Chinese tourism for the first time since 1963
1979-80 China allows a series of three delegations from DL to visit Tibet
1980 CCP leader Hu Yaobang visits Lhasa; he promises to "relax" controls
and "restore the Tibetan economy to its pre-1959 level."[Strauss]
"Responsibility system" distributes collectivized land to individuals
1982 Writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn calls CCP regime in Tibet "more brutal
and inhuman than any other communist regime in the world."[Walt3]
1985 Bomb defused in Lhasa during the TAR 20th anniversary celebration
1987 Police fire on a massive pro-independence demonstration in Lhasa
1988 Qiao Shi, politburo member and internal security chief, visits Tibet
and vows to "adopt a policy of merciless repression." [Asia90]
Speaking in Strasbourg, France, the Dalai Lama elaborates on his 1987
"five point" proposal for Tibetan self-government within China.
1989 Police kill 80-150 in Lhasa's bloodiest riots in 30 years [Schwartz]
Martial law imposed in Lhasa; Dalai Lama receives Nobel Peace Prize
1990 China lifts martial law in Lhasa 13 months after imposing it
The Voice of America initiates a Tibetan-language broadcast service
1992 Chen Kuiyuan named CCP leader for Tibet, calls for a purge of those
who "act as internal agents of the Dalai Lama clique."[Kristof93]
Over 30,000 visitors arrive in TAR's "Golden Year of Tibetan Tourism"
1991 1,000 Tibetan refugees, chosen by lottery, are admitted to the U.S.
1993 Residents of Lhasa protest for independence, against inflation and
the charging of fees for formally free medical services [Kaye93]
1994 Potala, former residence of the DL, is restored at a cost of $9 mln.
1995 A report on Chinese human rights violations, including one case where
a Tibetan nun was beaten to death, is narrowly rejected by the UN
DL recognizes six-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as 11th Panchen Lama
China denounces the Dalai Lama's choice of Panchen Lama as a "fraud,"
selects rival candidate Gyaincain Norbu by golden urn process
Tibet's worst snowstorm in a century leaves more than 50 dead
1996 Earthquake in Lijang rates 7.0 on the Richter scale and kills 200
The U.S.-funded Radio Free Asia begins broadcasting on shortwave
Bomb explodes near government offices in Lhasa on Christmas day;
a 1 million yuan ($120,000) reward is offered to solve crime
DL takes steps to limit Shugden worship in Tibetan exile community
1997 Three monks close to DL are murdered; Shugden supporters suspected
Dalai Lama visits Taiwan and meets with ROC President Lee Teng-hui
B2) What were the roles of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in Tibetan history?
The Dalai Lama was traditionally considered supreme in both temporal and
spiritual matters while the Panchen Lama was traditionally considered
supreme in spiritual matters. A contradiction is therefore created when the
two lamas disagree, a recurring problem in Tibetan history.
Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama, was born to a Tibetan peasant family
in Qinghai in 1935. He was discovered at the age of two by a search party of
high-ranking monks who gave him various traditional tests and concluded that
he was the reincarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama (1876-1933). He was
proclaimed 14th Dalai Lama in 1939 by the Tshongdu.
When the Chinese occupied Tibet in 1951, the Dalai Lama at first attempted to
cooperate with the new rulers. But concern for his personal safety sparked an
anti-Chinese revolt in 1959. He then fled to India, crossing the border just
ahead of pursuing Chinese troops. He now heads a government-in-exile which
administers Tibetan refugee camps and has its headquarters in Dharamsala,
India. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989 and has met with U.S. presidents
George Bush and Bill Clinton. His autobiography, entitled _Freedom in Exile_
(1990), is banned in Tibet.
"Panchen" is a traditional title of the abbot of Tashilhunpo and means
"great scholar." In the 17th century, the "great fifth" Dalai Lama (1617-
1682) declared that his tutor, the fourth abbot of Tashilhunpo (1570-1662),
would reincarnate. Although the three earlier abbots did not reincarnated,
they are usually counted as the first three Panchen Lamas.
As a result of a dispute between the Tibetan government and the Tashilhunpo
Monastery over tax arrears, the 9th Panchen Lama (1883-1937) fled to
Mongolia in 1923. He died fourteen years later at Jyekundo in Qinghai,
still an exile.
His officers (_labrang_) chose as 10th Panchen Lama (1938-89) a boy born in
Qinghai. At the insistence of China, the Tibetan government confirmed this
choice in 1951. The Panchen Lama was then brought to Tibet by a Chinese
military escort and enthroned.
In 1962, the Panchen Lama sent a "70,000 character letter" to the CCP
Central Committee in which he accused China of pursuing a policy aimed at
"genocide and elimination of religion." In a 1964 sermon delivered to an
enormous crowd in Lhasa, the Panchen Lama hailed the Dalai Lama's leadership
and declared that, "Tibet will soon regain her independence." [Dhondup78]
In response, the Chinese accused the Panchen Lama of "counterrevolutionary
crimes." He was then arrested, imprisoned, and tortured. He was released in
1978, married an ethnic Chinese, and moved to a large house near the center
of Beijing. As a vice chair of the National People's Congress, China's
national assembly, he often appeared on Chinese television. He died in 1989
of a heart attack, according to reports in the Chinese media. [Southerland89]
In 1995, the Dalai Lama recognized the six-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as
the 11th Panchen Lama. China denounced this choice as a "fraud" and instead
recognized Gyaincain Norbu, the six-year-old son of a security officer.
B3) Did slavery exist in old Tibet?
The following account was written by Sir Charles Bell, who was the British
administrator for Chumbi Valley in 1904-05. At that time, Chumbi Valley was
under British occupation pending payment by Tibet of an indemnity which
resulted from the Younghusband Expedition of 1904.
Slaves were sometimes stolen, when small children, from their parents.
Or the father and mother, being too poor to support their child, would
sell it to a man, who paid them _sho-ring_, "price of mother's milk,"
brought up the child and kept it, or sold it, as a slave. These children
come mostly from south-eastern Tibet and the territories of the wild
tribes who dwell between Tibet and Assam. [Bell24]
Although the CCP cites slavery as a justification for liquidating the Dalai
Lama's government, the practice was by no means confined to Tibet. It is
estimated that in 1930 there were about 4 million child slaves in China
proper (Cantonese: _mui1jai_). [Meltzer93]
B4) Was human sacrifice practiced in old Tibet?
The Chinese Communists put a great deal of emphasis on the ritual use of
human body parts in Tibetan Buddhism, especially with regard to human skulls
and thigh-bones. It is implied that these body parts were obtained by human
sacrifice -- an idea firmly rejected by scholars of Tibetan culture.
Another version of the human sacrifice charge is that Tibetans would
commonly, "bury living boys beneath important buildings or images, so that
they would `stand forever.'" It appears that this version is also
uncollaborated by independent scholarship. Perhaps this claim has it's origin
in the occasional Tibetan practice of burying bodies in the walls of houses.
Human sacrifice was a part of pre-Buddhist Tibetan tradition and there are
reports which suggest that it was occasionally practiced in more recent
times. [Grunfeld2], [Epstein83]
B5) What is the historical basis of the Chinese claim to Tibet?
Here is how the Chinese Communist magazine _Beijing Review_ explains it:
From ancient times, the Mongolians had been one of China's
nationalities. In the 13th century, their power expanded rapidly.
Genghis Khan united the tribes under a centralized Khanate in 1206.
The outcome was a unified country [China] and the formation of the
Yuan Dynasty in 1271.
In the process, the Mongol Khanates peacefully incorporated Tibet
in 1247 after defeating the Western Xia and the Jin.
With a unified China, the Yuan Dynasty contributed greatly to the
political, economic and cultural development of the nation's various
nationalities -- in strict contrast to the feuding that had gone on
since the late years of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). To argue that the
Mongolians' campaign to unify China was fundamentally the imposition
of rule by a foreign power is wrong because it misses the basic point
of Chinese history that China is a multi-national country. Whether it
was the Mongolians, the Manchus (who founded the Qing Dynasty), or any
other peoples, it has always been a case of one Chinese nationality
replacing another. It is completely out of the question to claim that
the Mongolians or the Manchus were outsiders who conquered China.
[BR-F89]
The Dalai Lama's view is as follows:
During the Vth Dalai Lama's time [1617-1682], I think it was quite
evident the we were a separate sovereign nation with no problems. The
VIth Dalai Lama [1683-1706] was spiritually pre-eminent, but
politically, he was weak and disinterested. He could not follow the
Vth Dalai Lama's path. This was a great failure. So, then the Chinese
influence increased. During this time, the Tibetans showed quite a
deal of respect to the Chinese. But even during these times, the
Tibetans never regarded Tibet as a part of China. All the documents
were very clear that China, Mongolia and Tibet were all separate
countries. Because the Chinese emperor was powerful and influential,
the small nations accepted the Chinese power or influence. You cannot
use the previous invasion as evidence that Tibet belongs to China. In
the Tibetan mind, regardless of who was in power, whether it was the
Manchus, the Mongols or the Chinese, the east of Tibet was simply
referred to as China. In the Tibetan mind, India and China were
treated the same; two separate countries. [Gyatso89]
B6) What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644-1912)?
The Tibetan view of their relationship with the Qing Empire was expressed
by the 13th Dalai Lama in his 1913 proclamation of independence: "The
relationship between Tibet and [imperial] China was that of priest and
patron and was not based on the subordination of one to the other."
[Walt4]
Subordination was, however, an integral part of the Chinese view of
international affairs. In traditional Chinese legal doctrine, the emperor
was a universal ruler. Any territory that was not under direct imperial
administration was considered to be either tributary or rebellious. In
the official records of the Qing dynasty, _Da Qing Lichao Shilu_, various
countries with a wide variety relationships with the Qing Empire are
listed as vassal states (_shu2guo2_), including Korea, Vietnam, Tibet,
Britain, and even the Papacy. [Walt5]
In Qing documents written during the early years of the dynasty, Tibet is
referred to as a _guo2_ (nation). [Brunnert12] This suggests a status
equivalent to that of, say, Korea or Vietnam. In later years, however, Tibet
was referred to as a _bu4_ (dependency), a term that was also applied to
Mongolia. [Walt6]
In reaction to a British military expedition to Lhasa in 1904, the Qing
government asserted, for the first time, a claim of sovereignty over
Tibet. [Walt7] An atlas published in Shanghai in 1910 helped publicized this
new territorial claim. [Atlas10] In contrast, a popular Chinese atlas first
published in 1879 has a map of the Qing Empire which shows Korea, Manchuria,
Taiwan, and China proper, but not Tibet. [Yang75]
While the Qing (or Manchu) Empire is often referred to as "China," it was
in fact a multi-national dynastic state. Muslims, Mongols, Manchus, Koreans,
and ethnic Chinese (Han) were each governed on a separate basis and no
attempt was made to create a common nationality or citizenship. Since 1911,
however, the Chinese government has based its legitimacy on ethnic Chinese
nationalism.
B7) What was Tibet's status immediately prior to China's 1950-51 invasion?
The International Commission of Jurists, a Geneva-based human rights
organization, issued a report in 1960 which examined the legal status of the
Tibetan government:
The view of the COMMITTEE was that Tibet was at the very least a _de
facto_ independent State when the Agreement on Peaceful Measures in
Tibet was signed in [23 May] 1951, and the repudiation of this
agreement by the Tibetan Government in [20 June] 1959 was found to
be fully justified....In 1950, there was a people and a territory,
and a government which functioned in that territory, conducting its
own domestic affairs free from any outside authority. From 1913-1950
foreign relations of Tibet were conducted exclusively by the
Government of Tibet and countries with whom Tibet had practice as an
independent State. [ICJ2]
Tibet was accorded differing degrees of recognition by various governments.
Mongolia, for example, explicitly recognized Tibet's independence in a 1913
"Treaty of Friendship and Alliance" which was signed by representatives of
both nations in Urga, Mongolia. [Walt8]
Nepal's 1949 application for U.N. membership lists Tibet as a country that
Nepal had full diplomatic relations with. [Walt9] The chief Nepalese
diplomat in Lhasa held the title _vakil_ ("ambassador") up until 1962.
[Savada93]
In 1943, the British embassy in Washington told the U.S. State Department
that, "Tibet is a separate country in full enjoyment of local autonomy,
entitled to exchange diplomatic representatives with other powers." [Walt10]
In a note presented to Chinese Foreign Minister T. V. Song a few months
later, British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden described Tibet as, "an
autonomous State under the suzerainty of China" which "enjoyed de facto
independence." [Goldstein89]
Chinese President Yuan Shikai issued the following order in 1912:
Now that the Five Races [i.e. Ethnic Chinese, Manchus, Mongols,
Tibetans, and Muslims/Turkestanis] are joined in democratic union,
the lands comprised within the confines of Mongolia, Tibet and
Turkestan all become a part of the territory of the Republic of China.
[Walt11]
The CCP drew up a proposed constitution for China in 1931 which stated that
"national minorities," including Tibetans, "may either join the Union of
Chinese Soviets or secede from it." [Grunfeld3] By 1949, however, a CCP-
controlled Radio Beijing was expressing quite a different view:
The Tibetan people are an indivisible part of the Chinese people.
Any aggressor who fails to recognize this point will "crack his skull
against the mailed fist of the PLA." [Walt12]
Section C: HUMAN RIGHTS
C1) Are Tibetan women being forced to have abortions?
The following account is from _Sky Burial_ (1993) by Blake Kerr. Kerr is
an American physician who visited Tibet in 1987.
I spoke with a Tibetan nurse named Chimi who had worked for three
years at Lhasa's People's Hospital. She explained to me China's
family-planning policy for urban Tibetans....
"If a woman has a second child," she continued, "the child will have
rights. But this is discouraged. Sterilization is done automatically
on many women delivering their second child at Chinese hospitals.
"Having a third child is strongly discouraged. An illegal child has
no ration card for the monthly allotment of Tibetan dietary staples
at government stores: seven kilos of _tsampa_, one-half kilo yak
butter, and cooking oil. Without a ration card a child cannot go to
school, do organized work, travel, or own property....
My stomach felt queasy as Chimi described how "unauthorized"
pregnancies were routinely terminated with lethal injections. Chimi
said that she herself had given hundreds of these injections....[Kerr93]
C2) How are Tibetan political prisoners treated?
The following quote is from a 1988 news story that appeared in _The
Washington Post_. It is based on the statements of two former prisoners
arrested on March 5, 1988 during a large pro-independence demonstration.
Both former prisoners were held at the Gutsa detention center near Lhasa.
[The released lay prisoner] said that interrogators beat seven monks
from one monastery, and then stuffed all seven into a small confined
water channel. The guards then "stomped all over their bodies," he said.
"They beat us with whatever was at their disposal, including wash
basins and mugs," he said. "They kicked us and used pistol butts and
...wooden sticks on us."
The released prisoner said that interrogators used electric cattle
prods as an instrument of torture. Some prisoners also underwent the
"Chinese rope torture," he said.
"I saw people hanging from ropes tied to their arms behind their
backs, suspended with their feet off the ground. Two of the people I
saw had their shoulders dislocated by the rope. Many became
unconscious as a result."
Both former prisoners said that those who were treated most harshly
in the prisons were Tibetan nuns. Most of the imprisoned nuns have
been released from prison but were said to be reluctant to talk about
the experience.
The most brutal of the guards were said to be Tibetans, not Chinese.
[Southerland88]
A recent Amnesty International report includes a list 628 Tibetans who spent
at least some time in prison during the period 1992-94 as result of their
political beliefs. [Strib95]
The 10th Panchen Lama gave the following account of human rights conditions
in Tibet in a 1987 speech delivered in Beijing:
In 1959 there were rebellions in Tibet.... People were arrested and
jailed indiscriminately. There were no interrogations. On sight
Tibetans were taken to jail and beaten. Things like this are still
common in Tibet....
If there was a film made on all the atrocities perpetrated in Qinghai
province, it would shock the viewers. In Golok area, many people were
killed and their dead bodies were rolled down the hill into a big
ditch. The soldiers told the family members and relatives of the dead
people that they should all celebrate since the rebels had been wiped
out. They were even forced to dance on the dead bodies. Soon after, they
were also massacred with machine guns. They were all buried there....
In Amdo and Kham, people were subjected unspeakable atrocities. People
were shot in groups of ten or twenty. I know that it is not good to
speak about these things. But such actions have left deep wounds in the
minds of the people. [Donnet94]
C3) How many Tibetans have died as a result of the Chinese occupation?
The following table was made up by the Bureau of Information of the
Tibetan government-in-exile:
TIBETAN DEATHS UNDER CHINESE OCCUPATION (through 1988)
CAUSE OF DEATH U-Tsang Kham Amdo Total
Prisons, Labor Camps 93,560 64,877 14,784 173,221
Torture 27,951 48,840 15,940 97,731
Execution 28,267 32,266 96,225 156,758
Uprisings 143,253 240,410 49,042 432,705
Starvation 131,072 89,916 121,982 342,970
Suicide 3,375 3,952 1,675 9,002
TOTAL 427,478 480,361 299,648 1,207,387
Source: [Kewley90]
Section D: STATISTICAL ISSUES
D1) What is the total population of Tibet?
Tibetan Population (in millions)
Year All Ethnic Tibetans Central Tibet (TAR) Source
1268 1.0 -- [Goldstein81]
1737 0.316 (monks)
0.127 (lay families) [Rockhill91]
1900 1.0 -- [McEvedy78]
1953 2.776 1.274 [Banister87]
1964 2.501 1.251 [Banister87]
1982 3.870 1.892 [Banister87]
1990 4.593 2.196 [BR-D90], [BR-N90]
1995 -- 2.389 [Reuter96]
The figure for 1268 is an estimate made by American scholar Melvyn Goldstein
on the basis of a Mongol census taken during that year. The figures for 1737,
1953, 1964, 1982, and 1990 are Chinese census results. The 1995 figure is an
estimate produced by China's State Statistical Bureau. The SSB's report on
the 1990 census estimates that Tibet had a population of about 1.05 million
in 1951. This suggests that the 1953 census result is now regarded as an
overcount.
D2) How many ethnic Chinese live in Tibet (population transfer)?
The view of the Tibetan government-in-exile is provided by its Department
of Information and International Relations:
Despite the lack of exact figures, and despite Chinese denials, the
evidence points to a deliberate and long-standing population transfer
policy. The policy is carried out largely with the help of Government
incentive programs for Chinese from various Chinese provinces to
relocate in Tibet. Higher wages, special housing, business and pension
benefits are but some of the incentives provided. China's fourth
population census in 1990 put the Chinese population (including a
small number of Mongols) in the Tibetan provinces of Kham and Amdo at
4,927,369. However, it is said that there is at least one unregistered
Chinese against every two registered ones. The actual Chinese
population, both registered and unregistered, in these areas should be
about 7.5 million. In the recent years, China is reported to have
stepped up the transfer of its population to the "TAR" also. [Info93]
Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) states that, "The
Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian
population into the territory it occupies."
In the previous quote, the word "Tibet" is used to refer to the entire
Tibet-Qinghai Plateau. In contrast, the quote below, from a 1994 _Washington
Post_ news article, uses the word to refer to TAR only, a much smaller area.
Accurate figures for the ethnic breakdown of Tibet's population are
difficult to obtain and are disputed by Chinese officials and the
Tibetan exile community. Many Western analysts say the exile
community's figures are highly exaggerated.
Of Tibet's population of about 2.2 million, there are an estimated
66,000 ethnic Chinese with permanent residence status, according to
Chinese officials. Not included are another 40,000 Chinese
entrepreneurs who are part of an unofficial "floating population" and
between 40,000 and 65,000 soldiers and paramilitary police, putting
the total Chinese population in Tibet at no more than 8 percent...
In Lhasa, about 50 percent of the population of 150,000 is now
Chinese, longtime residents and Western analysts say. [Sun94]
A 1995 report by the Free Tibet Campaign estimated TAR's "total non-
Tibetan population to be between 250,000 and 300,000, not including small
groups of peoples indigenous to the region." The report also concluded that,
For all the Chinese defined Tibetan autonomous areas (including the
TAR) we estimate the total non-Tibetan population to be between 2.5
to 3 million; figures based on Chinese statistics from 1990 claimed
the non-Tibetan total population to be 1.5 million; figures based on
Chinese statistics from 1990 claimed the total Tibetan population for
all the Tibetan autonomous areas to be 4.34 million. [Tibet95]
D3) What are Tibet's economic statistics?
Tibet (TAR) China (PRC) USA
Per capita GDP in U.S.
dollars (1993) 242 462 24,700
Average annual growth in
real income (1985-91) 5.5 8.1 0.8
Telephone main lines per
100 population (1992) 0.01 1 56
Percentage of adults who
are literate (1990) 56 74 97
Percentage of adults who
are high school grads (1990) 2.12 8.04 77.6
Percentage of adults who
are college grads (1990) 0.57 1.42 21.3
Sources: [Bennett95], [Fiske94], [Overholt93], [US Census94], [World94],
[Poston92]
Section D: FURTHER INFORMATION
E1) What World-Wide Web sites have further information about Tibet?
Tibet Online Resource Gathering http://www.tibet.org/
The top source for Tibet-related information on the Internet.
Channel #Tibet's Homepage http://www.callamer.com/~urgen/tibet/
DharmaNet Electronic
Files Archive http://www.dharmanet.org
An online Buddhist library maintained by DharmaNet International.
Free Tibet Home Page http://www.manymedia.com/tibet/index.html
This site maintains a list of Tibetan support organizations and their
programs; articles with suggestions for action you can undertake to
help Tibetans; and a Tibetan reading and resource list.
Granny G's Canadian Neighborhood Homeport http://www.grannyg.bc.ca/tibet/
Home Page of Tibet http://omni.cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/Welcome.html
This site includes an outline of Tibet's history from a pro-Chinese point
of view.
IHEP/China (US mirror site) http://solar.rtd.utk.edu/~china/tour/tb.html
This site is maintained by the Institute of High Energy Physics in
Beijing.
International Campaign for Tibet http://www.peacenet.org/ict
Magic of Tibet http://www.magicoftibet.com
Multimedia site with Tibetan music http://park.org/Tibet
Shugden Supporters Community http://www.he.net/~shugden
Snow Lion Web Site http://www.well.com/user/snowlion/
A catalog of books on Tibet available from Snow Lion Publications.
Students for a Free Tibet http://cs.oberlin.edu/~djacobs/tibet
talk.pol.tibet FAQ http://www.manymedia.com/tibet/TibetResourcesPolFAQ.html
An indexed version of this document.
Tibetan language radio broadcasts http://www.twics.co.jp/~tsgjp/tibrad.html
Tibetan Studies WWW Virtual Library
text http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVL-TibetanStudies.html
images http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Map/tibetmaps.html
images http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Art/tibetart.html
These URLs are part of the Asian Studies WWW Virtual Library maintained
by the COOMBS Computing Unit of Australian National University,
Canberra. They provide web links to 116 facilities worldwide with Tibet-
related information.
Tibet Current Affairs
http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Current/tin-bulletins.html
An on-line archive of current affairs analyses and news bulletins
maintained by the London-based Tibet Information Network.
World Tibet Network News http://www.omtanken.se/sve_tib/wtnn.htm
alternate site http://www.iem.pw.edu.pl/PSPT/wtn.html
E2) Where do I find information concerning travel to Tibet?
An FAQ on travelling to Tibet was written by (andrew@dorje.demon.co.uk).
It can be accessed via the following URL:
http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Travel/travel-faq.html
Campaign Free Tibet, listed under question E4, offers several fact sheets on
travelling to Tibet. These are available by either e-mail or by postal mail.
E3) What Tibet-oriented mailing lists can I subscribe to?
World Tibet Network News is a weekly electronic newsletter which contains
news and comment about Tibet from a variety of viewpoints. To subscribe,
e-mail a request to (listserv@vm1.mcgill.ca). In the body of the message,
type "SUB WTN-L [your name]". For example: SUB WTN-L Jane Q. User
To cancel your subscription, send a message with command, "SIGNOFF WTN-L"
to (listserv@vm1.mcgill.ca). WTN is also available from a Web site listed
in question E1.
Tibet-L is a mailing list for discussing issues related to Tibet. According
to the description provided by Conrad Richter (tibet@RICHTERS.COM), owner of
the list, "News and views, comments and questions are welcome on topics such
as tours of lamas, conferences, exhibitions, and seminars too. Particularly
welcome are submissions on political developments in Tibet."
To subscribe, send a request to (Listserv@iubvm.ucs.indiana.edu). In the
body of the message, type "SUBSCRIBE TIBET-L [your name]". Send articles to
be posted on the list to (TIBET-L@iubvm.ucs.indiana.edu). To cancel your
subscription, send the command "SIGNOFF TIBET-L" to
(Listserv@iubvm.ucs.indiana.edu).
Tibetan-Studies-L is a mailing list maintained by the Australian National
University "for exchange of scholarly and factual information dealing with
Tibet." To subscribe, send a e-mail to (majordomo@coombs.anu.edu.au) with
the message "SUBSCRIBE Tibetan-Studies-L [your e-mail address]".
E4) What are the addresses of some organizations that deal with Tibet?
AUSTRALIA
Office of Tibet
3 Weld Street, Yarralumla, Canberra ACT, 2600
Tel.: (61-6) 285-4046 and (61-6) 282-4306 Fax: (61-6) 282-4301
[The Australian office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.]
CANADA
Canada-Tibet Committee
4675 Coolbrook, Montreal, Quebec H3X 2K7
Tel.: (1-514)-487-0665 Fax: (1-514)-487-7825
E-mail: (tibet@richters.com)
[CTC is a cross-Canada network dedicated to fighting human
rights abuses in Tibet and advancing the Tibetan people's right
to independence. It is currently raising funds to improve Internet
access for Tibetans living in India. CTC also publishes World Tibet
Network News. (See question E3).]
INDIA
Bureau of His Holiness the Dalai Lama
10 Ring Road, Lajpat Nagar IV, New Delhi 110024
Tel.: (91-11) 647-3386 Fax: (91-11) 646-1914
[The Dalai Lama can be e-mailed at the Tibetan Computer Resource
Center (tcrc@cta.unv.ernet.in). Use "TO: His Holiness" as the
subject.]
Department of Information and International Relations
Central Tibetan Administration, Gangchen Kyishong, Dharamasala 176 215
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
International Campaign for Tibet
1825 K St. NW Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20006
Tel.: (1-202) 785-1515 Fax: (1-202) 785-4343
E-mail: (ict@igc.apc.org)
[The ICT has produced a tourist map entitled "On This Spot: An
Unconventional Map and Guide to Lhasa," which includes "uncensored
stories behind Lhasa's tourist sites." The mail order cost is $6.95.
The ICT also publishes _Tibet Press Watch_, a bi-monthly magazine
for ICT members. Membership costs $25 a year. ICT has a Web site
listed under question E1.]
Office of Tibet
241 E 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
Tel.: (1-212) 213-5010 Fax: (1-212) 779-9245
E-mail: (otny@igc.apc.org)
[The North American office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.]
Students for a Free Tibet
241 E 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
Tel.: (1-212) 213-5011 Fax: (1-212) 779-9245
E-mail: (ustcsft@igc.apc.org)
Tibetan Review, Potala Publications
241 East 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
[_Tibetan Review_ is published monthly in New Delhi by Tibetans. A
subscription costs $20 a year.]
UNITED KINGDOM
Free Tibet Campaign (formerly Tibet Support Group UK)
9 Islington Green, London N1 2XH
Tel.: (44-171) 359 7573 Fax: (44-171) 354 1026
E-mail: tibetsupport@gn.apc.org
http://www.freetibet.org
Independent Tibet Network (formally Campaign Free Tibet)
30 Hollingbourne Gardens, Ealing, London W13
Tel.: (44-181) 998-8368
Office of Tibet
Tibet House, 1 Culworth Street, London NW8 7AF
Tel.: (44-171) 722-5378 Fax: (44-171) 722-0362
[The British office of the Tibetan government-in-exile. Its has a web
site at http://www.gn.apc.org/tibetlondon]
Tibet Information Network (TIN)
City Cloisters, 188-196 Old St.,
London EC1 9FR, United Kingdom
Tel.: (44-171) 814-9011 Fax: (44-171) 814-9015
E-mail: (tin@gn.apc.org)
[Independent news gathering and distribution service]
E5) What books about Tibet would you recommend?
Avedon, John F. _In Exile From the Land of Snows_, New York, 1984, xii +
383 pages. An account of Tibet's recent history from the perspective of
the Tibetan exile community.
Epstein, Israel. _Tibet Transformed_, Beijing, 1983, 566 pages. Beijing's
view of matters Tibetan.
Feigon, Lee. _Demystifying Tibet: Unlocking the Secrets of the Land of
Snows_, Chicago, 1996, xi + 242 pages. A general survey of Tibetan
history.
Goldstein, Melvyn C. _A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: the Demise of
the Lamaist State_, Berkeley, 1989, xxv + 898 pages. A nonpartisan,
authoritative account by the foremost scholar of modern Tibetan
history.
Harrer, Heinrich. _Seven Years in Tibet_, New York, 1953, xiii + 288 pages.
A classic tale of travel and adventure, told by an Austrian mountain
climber who became a tutor to the Dalai Lama.
Richardson, Hugh Edward. _Tibet and Its History_, Boulder, 1984, 327 pages.
A British view of Tibet's history, now in its second revised edition.
Richardson was head of the British/Indian mission in Lhasa in 1936-40
and 1946-50.
Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. _The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and
Prospects in International Law_, Boulder, 1987, xxiv + 381 pages. Makes
a thoroughly documented legal case for Tibet's status as an independent
nation.
Section F: SOURCES
[Atlas10] _Atlas of China = Ta-Ch'ing Ti-kuo Ch'uan-t'u_, Shanghai, 1910,
map I.
[Asia90] Asia Watch Committee. _Merciless Repression: Human Rights Abuses
in Tibet_, New York, 1990, p. 1. A UPI report said that this remark
was made in a meeting with TAR local administrators in July 1988.
[Banister87] Banister, Judith. _China's Changing Population_, Stanford, 1987,
pp. 322-23.
[Bell24] Bell, Charles, _Tibet: Past and Present_, Oxford, 1924, pp. 78-79.
[Bennett95] Bennett, Gary M. _China Facts & Figures Annual: 1995_, Gulf
Breeze, 1995, p. 134.
[BR-D90] "Population of China's Ethnic Nationalities," _Beijing Review_,
Beijing, 24 Dec 1990, p. 34.
[BR-F89] "`Tibetan Independence' -- Fact or Fiction?" _Beijing Review_,
Beijing, 13 Feb 1989, pp. 25-30.
[BR-N90] "Tibetan Population Outgrows Average," _Beijing Review_, Beijing,
26 Nov 1990, p. 10.
[Brunnert12] Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V.V. _Present Day Political
Organization of China_, Shanghai, 1912. p. 467. This example is from
a 1694 decree issued by the Kangxi emperor.
[Dhondup78] Dhondup, K., "Panchen Lama, the Enigmatic Tibetan," _Tibetan
Review_, Feb-March 1978, pp. 13-17.
[Donnet94] Donnet, Pierre-Antoine. _Tibet: Survival in Question_, London and
New Jersey, 1994, pp. 234, 236, 244.
[Epstein83] Epstein, Israel. _Tibet Transformed_, Beijing, 1983,
pp. 140-141.
[Far95] "High Stakes," _Far East Economic Review_, Hongkong, 22 June 1995.
[Fiske94] Fiske, John D., _China Facts & Figures Annual: 1994_, Gulf Breeze,
1994, pp. 88, 260, 293, 296.
[Giles1] Giles, Herbert A. _A Chinese English Dictionary_, London, 1912,
pp. 415, 1496.
[Giles2] Ibid. pp. 504, 1434-35.
[Goldstein81] Goldstein, Melvyn C. "New Perspectives on Tibetan Fertility
and Population Decline," _American Ethnologist_, Washington, Nov 1981,
pp. 721-38.
[Goldstein89] Goldstein, Melvyn C. _A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951:
The Demise of the Lamaist State_, Berkeley, 1989, p. 401.
[Grunfeld1] Grunfeld, Tom A. _The Making of Modern Tibet_, London, 1987,
pp. 11, 13, 237n77.
[Grunfeld2] Ibid. pp. 27-28.
[Grunfeld3] Ibid. p. 228.
[Gyatso89] Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV. _Tibet, China and the World: A
Compilation of Interviews_, Dharamsala, 1989, p. 31.
[ICJ1] International Commission of Jurists, Legal Inquiry Committee on Tibet.
_Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic_, Geneva, 1960, p. 3.
[ICJ2] Ibid. pp. 5-6.
[Info93] Department of Information and International Relations, Central
Tibetan Administration. "Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts," Dharamasala,
1993.
[Kaye93] Kaye, Lincoln. "Raging Inflation: Lhasa Price Protest Escalates into
Anti-Chinese Riot," _Far Eastern Economic Review_, Hongkong, 3 Jun 1993,
p. 13.
[Kerr93] Kerr, Blake. _Sky Burial: An Eyewitness Account of China's Brutal
Crackdown in Tibet_, Chicago, 1993, pp. 163-64.
[Kewley90] Kewley, Vanya. _Tibet: Behind the Ice Curtain_, London, 1990,
p. 392.
[Kolmas67] Kolmas, Josef. _Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-
Tibetan Relations up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912_,
Canberra, 1967, pp. 27-28.
[Kristof93] Kristof, Nicholas D. "Communist Party Chief Calls for a Purge
in Tibet," _The New York Times_, New York, 14 Feb 1993, p. 11.
[Meltzer93] Meltzer, Milton, _Slavery: A World History_, New York, 1993,
Vol. II, p. 258.
[McEvedy78] McEvedy, Colin, and Jones, Richard. _The Atlas of World
Population History_, London, 1978, pp. 168-169.
[Overholt93] Overholt, William H. _The Rise of China: How Economic Reform
is Creating a New Superpower_, New York, 1993, pp. 103, 105.
[Partridge66] Partridge, Eric. _Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of
Modern English_, New York, 1966, p. 719.
[Poston92] Poston, Dudley L. Jr. and Yaukey, David. _The Population of Modern
China_, New York, 1992, overleaf.
[Reuter96] Reuter wire service report, March 19, 1996.
[Rockhill91] Rockhill, W. Woodville. "Tibet from Chinese Sources," _Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland_, Cambridge,
1891, p. 13.
[Savada93] Savada, Andrea M. _Nepal and Bhutan: Country Studies_, Washington,
1993, p. 186.
[Southerland88] Southerland, Daniel. "Tibetan Tells of Torture: Monk Says
Chinese Abuse Prisoners in the Region," _The Washington Post_,
Washington, 6 Sept 1988, p. A23:1.
[Southerland89] Southerland, Daniel. "The Panchen Lama, Religious Leader
in Tibet, Dies 50," _The Washington Post_, Washington, 30 Jan 1988,
p. D4:1.
[Strauss] Strauss, Robert. _Tibet -- A Travel Survival Kit_, Berkeley, 1992,
pp. 18-19.
[Strib95] "Report: Hundreds Jailed, Tortured in Tibet," _Minneapolis
Star-Tribune_, 30 May 1995, p. 4A.
[Sun94] Sun, Lena H. "Ethnic Animosities Reborn as Chinese Traders Flood
Tibet," _The Washington Post_, Washington, 15 Sept 1994, p. A27:1.
[Schwartz] Schwartz, Ronald D. _Circle of Protest: Political Ritual in the
Tibetan Uprising_, New York, 1994, pp. 160-61.
[Tibet95] Free Tibet Campaign. _New Majority Chinese Population Transfer
into Tibet_, London, 1995.
[US Census94] U.S. Bureau of the Census. _Statistical Abstract of the United
States: 1994_, Washington, 1994, tables 696, 1375.
[Walt1] Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. _The Status of Tibet: History, Rights
and Prospects in International Law_, Boulder, 1987, pp. 287-288.
[Walt2] Ibid. p. 163. Captured PLA documents are cited as the source of the
claim that 87,000 Tibetans died in the 1959 revolt.
[Walt3] Ibid. p. 196. The quote is from a speech Solzhenitsyn made in Tokyo.
[Walt4] Ibid. p. 318.
[Walt5] Ibid. p. 112.
[Walt6] Ibid. p. 36. This example is from a telegram sent by the Qing Foreign
Ministry to the Ambans in Lhasa in 1904.
[Walt7] Ibid. p. 37.
[Walt8] Ibid. p. 228n20.
[Walt9] Ibid. pp. 139-40.
[Walt10] Ibid. p. 79.
[Walt11] Ibid. p. 51.
[Walt12] Ibid. p. 89.
[World94] _World Almanac and Book of Facts: 1995_, New York, 1994, p. 833.
[Yang75] Yang Shou-ching. _Li Tai Yu Ti Yen Ko T`u_, Taipei, 1975, Vol 1,
pp. 13-71. This atlas was originally published in 1879 as _Li Tai Yu
Ti Yen Ko Hsien Yao Tu_.
Peter Kauffner Copyright 1994-1997
Minneapolis, Minnesota
"There are many great nations on this earth who have achieved unprecedented
wealth and might, but there is only one nation which is dedicated to the well-
being of humanity and that is the religious land of Tibet, which cherishes a
joint spiritual and temporal system." -- letter drafted by the Tibetan
National Assembly, 1946
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